(1) Field of the Invention
The present application generally relates to reagents for detecting enzymes. More specifically, substrates for detecting various enzymes that remove modifications of ε-amino moieties are provided.
(2) Description of the Related Art
Most sirtuin enzymes, also known as class III histone deactylases (class III HDACs), catalyze a reaction which couples deacetylation of protein ε-acetyllysine residues to the formation of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose and nicotinamide from NAD+ (Imai et al., 2000; Tanner et al., 2000; Tanny and Moazed, 2001). Some sirtuins, notably human sirtuins SIRT4 and SIRT6, catalyze an alternative reaction, the transfer of an ADP-ribosyl group from NAD+ to proteins (Liszt et al., 2005; Haigis et al., 2006), although the physiological relevance of these reactions is in question (Du et al., 2009). Sirtuin homologs are found in all forms of life, including the archaea, the bacteria, and both unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes (Smith et al., 2000; Blander and Guarente, 2004; Buck et al., 2004; Frye, 2000). The founding exemplar of the group, Sir2 from baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), was named for its role in gene-silencing (Silent information regulator 2; Rusche et al., 2003). Transcriptional silencing by Sir2 is linked to its deacetylation of lysines in the N-terminal tails of the histones in chromatin, hence the classification as a class III HDAC. Lysine deacetylation by sirtuins, however, extends beyond histones. Targets of sirtuin regulatory deacetylation include mammalian transcription factors such as p53 (Luo et al., 2001; Vaziri et al., 2001; Langley et al., 2002), the cytoskeletal protein tubulin (North et al., 2003), and the bacterial enzyme acetyl-CoA synthetase (Starai et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2004) and its mammalian homologs (Shimazu et al., 2010).
SIRT5, along with two other mammalian sirtuins, SIRT3 and SIRT4, is localized to the mitochondria (Michishita et al., 2005; Nakagawa et al., 2009). The human SIRT5 gene is located in a chromosomal region in which abnormalities are associated with malignancies, suggesting a possible SIRT5 role in cancer (Mahlknecht et al., 2008). Thus far, the best studied of SIRT5's possible physiological roles is the deacetylation and enhancement of the activity of the mitochondrial matrix enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthase 1 (CPS1), the rate-limiting enzyme for urea synthesis in the urea cycle (Nakagawa et al., 2009). Increased urea synthesis is required for removal of nitrogenous waste (ammonia) during periods of increased amino acid catabolism, including calorie restriction, fasting and the consumption of a high protein diet. Under these conditions, SIRT5 deacetylation of CPS1 is increased, along with CPS1 activity (Nakagawa et al., 2009). At least in the instance of starvation, the increased SIRT5 activity may be attributed to increased levels of the sirtuin co-substrate NAD+ in the mitochondria, which in turn is due to induction of the NAD+ synthetic pathway enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase, (Nampt) (Nakagawa et al., 2009). It should be noted, however, that two proteomic studies of the mouse mitochondrial “acetylome” are in possible conflict with the CPS1 results of Nakagawa et al. (2009). One group observed that calorie restriction increased acetylation at 7 of 24 sites in CPS1, but did not lead to deacetylation at any sites (Schwer et al., 2009). A comparison of the acetylated proteins of fed and fasted mice found that fasting induced the addition of 4 acetylated sites to CPS1, while only one of five sites present in the fed condition disappeared upon fasting (Kim, S. C. et al., 2006).
The evidence for another possible SIRT5 acetylated substrate, cytochrome c, is also equivocal (Huang et al., 2010; Gertz and Steegborn, 2010). While SIRT5 has been shown to deacetylate cytochrome c in vitro (Schlicker et al., 2008), there is conflicting data regarding whether it can localize to the same sub-mitochondrial compartment as cytochrome c, the intermembrane space (Schlicker et al., 2008; Nakamura et al., 2008; Nakagawa et al., 2009). Cytochrome c is a component of the respiratory electron transport chain and release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytoplasm promotes apoptosis (programmed cell death). Overexpression of SIRT5 in cerebellar granule neurons is pro-apoptotic, consistent at least with a possible SIRT5 regulatory role in the latter of these two processes, apoptosis (Pfister et al., 2008). A regulatory SIRT5 role in respiration has also been suggested (Gertz and Steegborn, 2010).
An alternative view of SIRT5's physiological function is that it may primarily involve catalysis of reactions other than deacetylation. SIRT5's deacetylase activity is detectable but weak with an acetylated histone H4 peptide (North et al., 2005) and with chemically acetylated histones or bovine serum albumin (Schuetz et al., 2007). The catalytic efficiency of SIRT5 with an acetylated histone H3 peptide (kcat/Km=3.5 s−1 M−1) is orders of magnitude lower than several human and yeast sirtuins (SIRT1, SIRT2, Sir2, Hst2) and more than 20-fold lower than the next weakest deacetylase tested, human SIRT3 (Du et al., 2009). Although there is a seeming conflict between the idea of SIRT5 as a non-deacetylase and its effects on CPS1, it should be noted that the rate of SIRT5 deacetylation of CPS1 has not been quantified; the deacetylation was only shown in qualitative way by western blotting with anti-acetyllysine (Nakagawa et al., 2009). Further, although SIRT5 performs an NAD+-dependent activation of CPS1 and an NAD+-dependent deacetylation of CPS1, no mechanistic link between the deacetylation and the activation has been established. The in vitro SIRT5/CPS1 activation experiments were performed with crude mitochondrial matrix lysates from SIRT5 knockout mice serving as the CPS1 source (Nakagawa et al., 2009). Conceivably, the CPS1 harbored another modification, in addition to acetylation, that SIRT5 reversed in an NAD+-dependent reaction. Consistent with this possibility is recently presented evidence that mitochondrial proteins are lysine-succinylated and that SIRT5 can desuccinylate peptides with efficiencies similar to the deacetylation efficiencies of human SIRTs 1-3 (Lin, 2010).
The activity of lysine deacetylases (class I and II HDACs and sirtuins (class III HDACs)) can be conveniently measured with synthetic substrates of the general structure X-Lysine(ε-acetyl)-F, where F is a fluorophore or other moiety for which a measurable signal increases after cleavage of its direct covalent bond to the carboxyl of lysine and X may be an N-terminal blocking group such as acetyl (Ac) or a peptide sequence (for single-lysine substrates see Hoffman et al., 1999; Enzo Life Sciences Instruction Manual for BML-AK500; Zhou et al., 2001; Bitterman et al., 2002). For longer peptide substrates see U.S. Pat. No. 7,033,778; U.S. Pat. No. 7,256,013; Howitz et al., 2003. A signal proportional to deacetylation is generated by virtue of the fact that trypsin, among other lysyl-specific peptidases, will not cleave amide bonds on the carboxyl side of lysine if the ε-amino of the lysine side-chain is modified by an acetyl function (Pantazis and Bonner, 1981; Brownlee et al., 1983). A homogenous, endpoint deacetylase assay can thus consist of a two-step procedure in which the deacetylase is first allowed to act on the substrate and signal is then generated in a second step in which trypsin selectively cleaves the deacetylated substrate molecules. A continuously coupled version of this assay procedure has been described in which the deacetylase, the substrate, and trypsin are all present in same reaction mixture during the deacetylation reaction (Schultz et al., 2004). It should be noted that not all modifications of the lysine ε-amino function result in elimination of trypsin cleavability at the lysine carboxyl. Trypsin will cleave at a reduced but significant rate at Nε-monomethyllysine residues (Benoiton and Deneault, 1966; Seely and Benoiton, 1970; Martinez et al., 1972; Joys and Kim, 1979), while Nε,Nε-dimethyllysine residues are resistant to trypsin cleavage (Poncz and Dearborn, 1983).
Although “X-Lysine(ε-acetyl)-F” substrates are widely used for the assay of various HDAC and sirtuin isoforms, assay of SIRT5 has been problematic because the efficiency of SIRT5 deacetylation of such substrates is extremely poor. For example, it has been asserted that SIRT5 “does not” deacetylate the p53 peptide substrate Ac-Arg-His-Lys-Lys(ε-acetyl)-AMC (Nakagawa et al., 2009). While SIRT5 will in fact deacetylate this peptide, significant levels of deacetylation require either a combination of high peptide substrate concentration (e.g. 500 μM), high concentration of the cosubstrate NAD+ (1 to 5 mM) and large quantities of enzyme (−5 μg/50 μl assay=˜3 μM SIRT5) (U.S. Patent Application Publication 20060014705) or the addition of a sirtuin activator such as resveratrol (Id.). Such conditions present severe practical problems for SIRT5 assays, particularly in drug discovery applications such as the screening of chemical libraries for SIRT5 inhibitor or activator “lead compounds” and the subsequent rounds of inhibitor/activator structure-activity relationship (SAR) characterization and chemical synthetic compound improvement. For example, high concentrations of the “X-Lysine(ε-acetyl)-F” type fluorogenic substrates produce a high background fluorescence in all samples. High fluorescence background increases the difficulty of observing statistically significant differences among positive controls, negative controls and inhibitor/activator “hits” (Zhang et al., 1999). Further, the lower limit for determining an enzyme inhibitor's IC50 (concentration at which the inhibitor lowers enzyme activity to 50% of the uninhibited control sample) is ½ the enzyme concentration (Copeland, 2000; Inglese et al., 2008). Thus, the use of a high enzyme concentrations in an assay impedes the ability to quantitatively distinguish high and low potency inhibitors/activators and consequently interferes with chemical synthetic efforts to optimize pharmaceutical lead compounds.
The present invention provides compositions and methods which solve these problems for SIRT5 by, for example, enabling assays to be performed at drastically lower enzyme concentrations (≦20 ng/50 μl, ≦12 nM) and at lower fluorogenic substrate concentrations (≦50 μM), which produce lower fluorescent background levels. Substrates for detecting other enzymes that remove modifications of ε-amino moieties are also provided.